ADMINISTRATIVE THEORIES AND PRACTICE

Administration:       This is the process of getting things done by other people. In   order to achieve this, there has to be organization. (Different forms of

Administration) e.g. public and private usually motivated by profit. There can also be non-profit oriented organization e.g. church and mosque. They are non-governmental, but at the same time non-profit oriented. Some administration involves bureaucracy and some do not involve bureaucracy but they all involve in administration.

PRACTICE AND THEORY OF ADMINISTRATION

The practice of administration refers to the process, conduct, functions etc. of administration. What does administrators do? POSDCORB (Luther Gulick’s Acronym)

P   -     Planning it involved the determination of an enterprise objectives and departments       

            Program and determining ways of achieving them.

O -      Organizing or Organization- divisions of labor and coordination of various divisions.

S -       Staffing – recruiting people and assigning them responsibilities.

D -       Directing (giving of instructions)

 C -    Co-coordinating, it is a must to have the means of co-coordinating the various units          leading to the achievement of the goal.            A line is the personnel of an organization that is directly involved in achieving or carrying out the objective of the organization. In University- the process is education and not everybody is teaching or involved in research.

Teachers/researchers are the LINE

A staff is a personnel of the organization who may not involved directly in carrying out or achieving the objectives of the organization e.g. security men. Cleaners etc.

R -       Reporting – a channel of communication. This can be vertical or horizontal or both                   ways. Vertical- subordinates report to the superior. Horizontal head of department report to another head of department on issues of common concern. Reporting can be a means of coordination. You can coordinate by sharing ideas or by dividing responsibilities or by organization i.e. establishing smaller groups.

B -       Budgeting- Translate the objectives into monetary terms.  That is how you source for and spend money.

Theory

A theory means general statements about any given phenomenon that is capable of de scribing, explaining, analyzing and if possible predict the behavior or outcome of that given phenomenon.

A theory is  divided into 3, depending on their focus.                                                                       

i.                    The short range theory:  these are more specific and narrow. They relate to elements of the given phenomenon. For example, dealing with planning.

ii.                  The middle range theory: Generalization of statements about broad segments of the given phenomenon or a single part of it.

iii.                Long range or grand theory: These are theories that try to give a single and general sable explanation of that given phenomenon. Only one theory that will explain that given phenomenon. i.e. H2O is the same everywhere oxygen and hydrogen.

Because of the peculiarities of administration and indeed all social sciences we ends up having middle range type of theories because we are not capable of generalizing human behaviors.

Can the 123 theories be classified a scientific or Art. All theories in administration deal with organization.

ADMINISTRATIVE THEORIES

The two terms in administration (Policies and decision are used interchangeably but there are differences between policy and decision making.

Decision making is narrow while that of policy is broad. Decision refers to a choice between or among alternatives. This choice as far as administration is concerned is supposed to be rational. In other words, it is based on factors such as cost benefit analysis, cost effective analysis and social impact analysis.

v    Cost effectiveness analysis- One is not concerned with monetary aspect of it. But the one that offers the maximum result.

v    Social impact analysis: - Here the impact is what will the effect of the policy be on the society-the impact could be on the values, culture, beliefs or religion of the people.

As a decision maker, you take all the factors into consideration for effective result.

The policy on the other hand is much broader than decision making; it includes decision making and every other thing that precedes decision making as well as all other things that comes after decision making.

      More specifically, policy involves 3 things:

1.     Formulation:    this is a stage when one actually set out to define the problem, content nature and all possible solutions to the other problems.

2.     Implementation:         Is the application of whatever was formulated weighing the pros and the cons.

3.     Evaluation:       Is the analysis of the implementation. The outcome of the evaluation is not the end of it. We can use the outcome of the evaluation to correct future decision.

    When we used the firm administration in the simplest form. We mean the execution or implementation of policies. Refers to the 3 arms of government in the discharge of their functions. Administrators are supposed to be politically neutral, non-partisan. Not to be in essence, swaged by sentiment in the execution of policies. .

The theories of administration

  A theory is a mental construct of reality that seeks to describes, analyze, explain and predict the behavior of any given phenomenon under study, in other words, a mental definition or conception of how to come up with something that will embrace the aforementioned.

The coming together of people irrespective of size or number is the beginning of administration. As far as administration is concerned, for many countries, people did not actually consider it as a field of human endeavor worthy of study but they actually wrote a lot of things that today are considered to be part of the classical theory of administration. For example people like Michelle Velli, Max Webber, Aristotle, Plato, Taylor etc. their writings influence modern theories of administration.  There emerged a lot of administration theories. The development of the various theories of administration is faced with two problems.

1.     All the theories are not cumulative - meaning they don’t build on one another (fragmented).

2       They are not revolutionary. In other words they do not attempt to supplement or remove from other theories.

  

      As a result of these problems, we have theories in administration rather than theory of administration. These are reasons we have so many theories that some conflict with others. These many theories are classified into many classes. However, the most common classification is the one that classify them into five main schools of thoughts. These are:

Structural, scientific management, administrative principles, relation and system approach school of thought.

1.     STRUCTURAL SCHOOL:    This school has many names. Some call it, the classical school, some call it organizational design school, and some call it the formal school.

The main assumption of this school of thought is that organization is like machines because they are designed according to some specification for the purpose of performing certain tasks. One good example of this structural school of thought is the BUREAUCRACTIC THEORY OF ORGANIZATION.

The school has max Webber as the founding father of the school. He defined Bureaucracy as a particular type of structural arrangement in an organization with specific pattern of behavior like all other organizations; therefore Bureaucracy is based on the legal rational authority. Accordingly, it has the following features:

1.     Hierarchy:    Offices are based on hierarchical structure with the higher office embracing all the subsequent ones.

2.     Areas of Jurisdiction: Official responsibilities are distributed in a fixed way while there are system or rules and control that are uniformly applied.

3.     Division of Labor: This is based on four functional classification or specialization.

i.                    Written document:      Documentation of decision not verbal.

ii.                  Competence:    Expert training or knowledge of the responsibility.   

iii.                Official activities demand the full working capacity of the individual e.g. no dabbling into other sphere; ie a lecturer dabbling as a car dealer.

iv.               Administration follows a detail rules that can be learnt. The rules should be clearly spelt out. I.e. who is accountable to whom, what is my jurisdiction etc.

4.                 The position of the Bureaucratic officials is supposed to be positional, full time careers. Security, impersonal, obeying rules based on the legal promotion, office not tied to the person of the officer. Remuneration is part of the aforementioned point. That is, fixed salary.

      The Bureaucratic theory (pros & cons)

     ADVANTAGES (Pros)

(1)             It is the most widely used theory in the public sector due to its quick response to solving problems.

(2)             This system is more stable. It allows for stability due to its wide application.

(3)             The system is very good in term of motivation. There is job security; there is prompt payment and incentive which give room for productivity.

(4)             Rationality:  The system is based on objective and legal procedure of doing things. The operation in bureaucracy is tied to rules and a regulation which brings about objectivity and the rules are documented.

DISADVANTAGES (Cons)

1 It is highly mechanical: Closely related to this is that it is highly rigid- There are                stages of doing things.

2       Anti-humanistic:- It is devoid of human feelings. Due to the conversion of human disaster to cases based on files. This makes the humanitarian part of it-lost. I.e. military regimented life style, obey before complain.

3 Bureaucratic systems is culture bound. It is highly in conformity with the western    culture, values, tradition etc. majorly, it is a colonial import which account for indoctrination i.e. European mode of dressing to the office, their language use for official transaction.

THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (

 Success of any administrator depends not on his personality or the structure that            he uses but on the technologies or the principles adopted.

           The founder of this school of thought is Henry Fayol.

According to Henri Fayol, all administration revolves around certain principles. On that basis, he classified the functions of an administration into five components:

1.              Organizing

2.              Coordinating

3.              Commanding

4.              Controlling

5.              Forecasting and planning.

                 Based on these, he listed fourteen principles.

1.              Division of labor

2.              Authority and responsibility

3.              Discipline

4.              Unity of command

5.              Unity of direction

6.              Subordination of individual interest to the general interest.

7.               Remuneration

8.              Centralization and decentralization

9.              Chain of command (scalar principle)

10.            Order

11.            Equity

12.            Stability of tenure or job security

13.            Initiative

14.            Esprit decorps:  Meaning one for all, all for one

THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (TAYLORISM)

The scientific management: - One of the major assumptions of this theory is that administration or management is based on mathematical calculation.

The leading founder of this school of thought is Frederick Taylor. Unlike the structural school of thoughts, the scientific management is concerned with increasing administrative productivity, efficiency, effectiveness etc. by focusing attention at the workshop level.

For this reason: - The theory concentrates its attention on the narrow aspect of work at the operation level. In other words, it work at the techniques of measuring work (how do we measure production) producing worker’s incentive of payment that is proportionate to output etc.

The argument of scientific management is that this system is a source of universal good because it is a systematic method in which everything is determined scientifically so as a result, there is elimination of wastages, increase in output and replacement of conflict with co-operation.

Scientific management is based on four principles:

1.     The development of a science for each task, in other words, the replacement of guesswork by observational and measurement. Also the replacement of traditional practices by calculation and rational methods.

2.     Management or Administrator should systematically select, train, teach and develop the worker so as to enable him perform his task in the best way.

3.     Separation: - Analysis, planning and control of work should be separated from executing the work. In other words the management should be responsible for planning, analysis and control of the work. While the workers should be responsible for the execution of tasks.

4.     Functional Management: - Supervisors should be specific in their specific areas rather than be generalist- specialization. Jack of all trade, master of none.

To ensure worker’s commitment to these four principles, especially on the part of the workers, the scientific management recommended the adoption of the following:

1.     That salary should commiserate with output. Payment houldt be tied to rate of productivity.

2.     That pay unit should be as small as possible: Time unit of payment- payment time should be short. Monthly salary should be discouraged. Rather payment should be weekly or bi-weekly.

3.     Payment should be based on merit of performance rather than criteria such as seniority.

PROBLEMS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMNET

1.     This very theory is absolutely mechanistic and abstractive based on their assumption that human beings are machines. Abstractive because it does not have wide application.

2.     The theory is highly inhuman. Its inhumanity is in the way it read humans as machines and to work perfectly.

However, the theory has its own advantages

1.     It ensures motivation and commitment.

2.     It ensures efficiency and effectiveness of both the workers and administrators.

3.     It ensures industrial peace and harmony.

It fosters good working relationship between the work force and the employer.

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ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE.

The administrative principle school of thought bears certain resemblance with the two earlier mentioned (Bureaucratic & Scientific) in some areas. In the sense that, it put emphasis on evolving or developing universal principle regarding co-operation and structures of an organization for the purpose of improving administrative practices.

However, unlike the other two schools, this school  of thought by  Henri Fayol was interpreted by many scholars but the most prominent among them is Giulick, who summarized the administrative function into one formula, POSADCORB. He also listed nine principles:

1.     Objective: Meaning all organization are expression of some purpose (focal point)

2.     Correspondence: Responsibilities should always be accompanied by the corresponding authority.

3.     Responsibility: Higher authority should have also wide responsibility for the actions of the subordinate in as much as those actions within the authority and power of the subordinate.

4.     Unity of Command- No one in the organization should report to mo re than one supervisor.

5.     Scalar principle- These should be clear line of authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization through delegation by steps with the highest executive to the employee who has the least accountability in the organization.

6.     Span of control- The number of levels of reporting unit should be kept minimal            ``  e.g. five or six levels per supervisor.

7.     Specialization – The work of everyone in the organization should be limited as far as possible to the performances of one single function.

8.     Coordination is basically saying that there should be mechanism of integrating the different aspects of organization. If division of labor is necessary then co-ordination is a must so that they function as one unit.

9.     Differentiation: This is specification of each position in the organization. Most especially the distinction between the line and staff function. But without overemphasizing the importance of one over the other.

ADVANTAGES OF ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE - SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

1.     It provides for the efficiency and effectiveness of both the administrator and organization.

2.     It also provides or enhances the commitment and productivity of the administration.

3.     It also allows for continuity and stability of the system.

DISADVANTAGES OF ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE - SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

1.     The principles are contradictory: Herbert Simon describes them as ‘mere proverb’

2.     It lacks inter practical application- In other words it is too idealistic- not applicable.

3.     It is too mechanistic.

HUMAN RELATION- SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

This school originated in the 1920s and 1930s from the famous Hawthorne research. As a school of thought, it has two basic characteristics which distinguished it from the other previous schools discussed.

1.     It is a collection of different theories whose only linkage is that they have certain common assumptions.

2.     Unlike all the other schools, the human relation  school is organic while the others were mechanistic. Its organic nature concentrated on the behavioral aspect of workers in the organization.

Some of the leading advocates of this school of thought include Abraham Mas1aw, Herzberg; McGregor etc. are all supporters of motivating workers through incentive, promotion etc.

  The main assumption of (Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregor) is that administration ts a   social process, meaning that administrator wants to get things done which they cannot do on their own but through others (workforce)       

Secondly, people have inner urge which compel them to reach their full potential. In other words, we try striving towards ‘self actualization’. i

Based on these two assumptions therefore, the proponents of this school of thought rely heavily on psychology in order to unravel the personality; social, trans-cultural influences etc. on the workers behavior.

As a result, while some scholars within this school of thought focus attention on simple ideas like,  treating the worker as a human being rather than an extension of machine: others conduct more sophisticated study on issues like: morale, leadership, communication, informal grouping etc.

Yet other scholars focus attention on the implication of cultural heritage, the impact of bureaucratization on individual personal reaction to crisis etc.